National Social Norms Institute

Articles by Year - 2005

American College Health Association. (2005). "The American College Health Association National College Health Assessment (ACHA-NCHA), Spring 2003 Reference Group Report." Journal of American College Health, 53(5):199-210. go to summary

Bernburg, J.G. (2005). "Violent Values, Conduct Norms, and Youth Aggression: a Multilevel Study in Iceland. " The Sociological Quarterly, 46:457-478. go to summary

Braxton, J. and Caboni, T. (2005). "Using Student Norms to Create Positive Learning Environments." About Campus, January-February, 2-7. go to summary

Dworkin, J. (2005). "Risk Taking as Developmentally Appropriate Experimentation for College Students." Journal of Adolescent Research, 20 (2):219-241. go to summary

Eisenberg, M.E., Neumark-Sztainer, D., Story, M., and Perry , C. (2005). "The Role of Social Norms and Friends' Influences on Unhealthy Weight-Control Behaviors Among Adolescent Girls." Social Science & Medicine 60(6):1165-1173. go to summary

Fergus, S, Zimmerman, M.A. (2005). "Adolescent Resilience: a Framework for Understanding Healthy Development in the Face of Risk." Annual Review of Public Health, 26:399-419. go to summary

Haines, M. (2005). "Habituation and Social Norms." The Report on Social Norms, 4(7):1,3,8.
(Note: A PDF copy of this article is available by clicking on the title.) go to summary

Lapinski, M.K., Rimal, R.N. (2005). "An Explication of Social Norms." Communication Theory, 15(2):127-147. go to summary

Lederman. L. and Stewart, L. (2005)., Changing The Culture Of College Drinking: A Socially Situated Health Communication Campaign. Hampton Press, go to summary

Nesdale, D., Maass, A., Durkin, K., and Griffiths, J. (2005). "Group Norms, Threat, and Children's Racial Prejudice." Child Development, 76(3):652-663. go to summary

Ott, C.H., Cashin, S., Altekruse, M. (2005). "Development and Validation of the College Tobacco Survey." Journal of American College Health, 53(5):231-238. go to summary

Russell, C., Clapp, J., DeJong, W. (2005). "Done 4: Analysis of a Failed Social Norms Marketing Campaign." Health Communication, 17 (1)57-65. go to summary

Sanchez, D.T., Crocker, J., Boike, K.R. (2005). "Doing Gender in the Bedroom: Investing in Gender Norms and the Sexual Experience." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(10):1445-1455. go to summary

Schneider,S., Towvim, L.G., DeJong, W. (2005). "The Social Norms Marketing Research Project: Results for Study 1." The Report on Social Norms, Volume 4(5). go to summary

Sorensen, S.B., Taylor, C.A. (2005). "Female Aggression Toward Male Intimate Partners: An Examination of Social Norms in a Community-Based Sample." Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29:78-96. go to summary

Taylor, C. A., and Sorensen, S.B. (2005). "Community-Based Norms about Intimate Partner Violence: Putting Attributions of Fault and Responsibility into Context." Sex Roles, 53(7/8):573-589. go to summary

Walters, Scott T., Miller, Elizabeth, and Chiauzzi, Emil (2005). Wired for Wellness: e-Interventions for Addressing College Drinking. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 29, 2, 139-145. go to summary

Walters, S. T. and Neighbors, N. (2005). "Feedback Interventions for College Alcohol Misuse: What, Why, and for Whom?" Addictive Behaviors, 30:1168-1182. go to summary

Wenzel, M. (2005). "Motivation or Rationalisation? Causal Relations between Ethics, Norms and Tax Compliance." Journal of Economic Psychology, 26:491-508. go to summary

West, S.L., Graham, C.W. (2005). "A Survey of Substance Abuse Prevention Efforts at Virginia's Colleges and Universities." Journal of American College Health, 54(3):185-191. go to summary

American College Health Association. (2005)."The American College Health Association National College Health Assessment (ACHA-NCHA), Spring 2003 Reference Group Report." Journal of American College Health, 53(5):199-210. return to list

Abstract:
Assessing and understanding the health needs and capacities of college students is paramount to creating healthy campus communities. The American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment (ACHA-NCHA) is a survey instrument developed by the American College Health Association (ACHA) in 1998 to assist institutions of higher education in achieving this goal. The ACHA-NCHA contains approximately 300 questions assessing student health status and health problems, risk and protective behaviors, access to health information, impediments to academic performance, and perceived norms across a variety of content areas, including injury prevention; personal safety and violence; alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use; sexual health; weight, nutrition, and exercise; and mental health. Twice a year, ACHA compiles aggregate data from institutions using the ACHA-NCHA to provide a reference group for data comparison. A portion of the data from the Spring 2003 Reference Group is provided in this article for use by professionals, researchers, institutions, departments, and organizations invested in advancing the health of college students.

Agostinelli, G. and Grube, J. (2005). "Effects of Presenting Heavy Drinking Norms on Adolescents' Prevalence Estimates, Evaluative Judgments, and Perceived Standards." Prevention Science, Vol. 6, No. 2:89-99. return to list

Abstract:
Correcting Normative information about the prevalence of heavy drinking is a key element in many prevention programs. To isolate the influence of normative information on older high school students' (n=230) alcohol-related judgments, the effects of delivering normative information in different contexts (no normative information, normative information only, normative information plus a self-focusing comparison to one's drinking) and under different measurement conditions (public, private) were examined. First, relative to presenting no norms, presenting norms both with and without a self-focus reduced the underestimation of the percent of high school students who never drink heavily. Second, the effects on both positive and negative evaluations of heavy drinking were examined independently. Heavy drinking students more strongly endorsed positive evaluations of heavy drinking than did non-heavy drinking students, but the self-serving bias was limited to the normative information only condition. Normative information failed to impact negative evaluations of heavy drinking for students at all drinking levels. Third, in judging the acceptable number of heavy drinking days approved by others, presenting the normative information in both contexts (relative to presenting no norms) led to more conservative judgments. Yet, only the normative context that added self-focus to the norm led students to adopt more conservative personal standards for the acceptable number of heavy drinking days. Finally, public versus private measurement did not affect any of the dependent variables. The findings are discussed as they relate to confrontational versus empathic styles in delivering interventions.

Bernburg, J.G. (2005). "Violent Values, Conduct Norms, and Youth Aggression: a Multilevel Study in Iceland. " The Sociological Quarterly, 46:457-478. return to list

Abstract:
The subculture of violence approach suggests that group adherence to values and norms that encourage violence influence aggressive behavior through two analytically separate processes: (1) internalization of values encouraging violence, and (2) social control stemming from others' adherence to conduct norms. While some attention has been paid to the former process, the research has rarely addressed the latter. We examine the individual-level and contextual effects of values that encourage violence and perceived conduct norms on youth aggression in Iceland. The results indicate that group adherence to violent values and norms influences aggression through social control as well as internalization (socialization), lending cross-cultural support to the subculture of violence perspective.

Braxton, J. and Caboni, T. (2005). "Using Student Norms to Create Positive Learning Environments." About Campus, 2-7. return to list

Excerpt:
"College and university administrators, faculty, and staff members often invest considerable time and effort in the formulation and modification of institutional policies and practices designed to foster campus environments favorable to student learning. Such policies and practices frequently offer much hope. However, the success or failure of such policies and practices depends on student acceptance and compliance. Knowledge and understanding of the norms espoused by student peer groups thus provide powerful tools for the formulation of such policies and practices."

Chernoff, R.A., Davison, G.C. (2005). "An Evaluation of A Brief HIV/AIDS Prevention Intervention for College Students Using Normative Feedback and Goal Setting." AIDS Education and Prevention, 17(2),91-104. return to list

Abstract:
This study evaluated the ability of a 20-minute self-administered intervention to increase HIV/AIDS risk reduction among sexually active college students. The intervention presented normative data on the relatively low prevalence of HIV risk behaviors among college students for the purpose of conveying the idea that risk reduction was the prevailing social norm among their same sex peers. The intervention also invited students to select specific risk reduction goals to be implemented over a 30-day follow-up period. Participants (N=155) were assigned in alternating order to receive either the intervention or a control condition that entailed reading a general AIDS information pamphlet. Results were partially moderated by gender. Compared with controls, men in the intervening group reported significantly higher condom use, whereas women in the intervention group reported significantly fewer sexual partners.

Dworkin, J. (2005). "Risk Taking as Developmentally Appropriate Experimentation for College Students." Journal of Adolescent Research, 20 (2):219-241. return to list

Abstract:
Researchers have suggested that experimentation may be a necessary, constructive component of identity formation. However, these researchers have also noted the paradox of risk taking: an individual may experience both positive and negative precursors and consequences of risk taking. The present investigation used qualitative methods to explore the personal meaning of experimentation behaviors and of this paradox to college students. A stratified sample of 12 community college students (6 female) and 20 university students (10 female) was interviewed. Data were analyzed using grounded theory methods. Students described a deliberate and functional process of experimenting with a variety of risk behaviors. This included articulating the ways in which college culture promotes participation in risk behaviors as developmentally appropriate experimentation.

Eisenberg, M.E., Neumark-Sztainer, D., Story, M., and Perry , C. (2005). "The Role of Social Norms and Friends' Influences on Unhealthy Weight-Control Behaviors among Adolescent Girls." Social Science & Medicine, 60(6):1165-1173. return to list

Abstract:
Dieting is common among adolescent girls and may place them at risk of using unhealthy weight-control behaviors (UWCBs), such as self-induced vomiting, laxatives, diet pills, or fasting. Research has suggested that social factors, including friends and broader cultural norms, may be associated with UWCBs. The present study examines the relationship between the school-wide prevalence of current weight loss efforts among adolescent girls, friends' dieting behavior, and UWCBs, and investigates differences in these associations across weight categories. Survey data were collected in 31 middle and high schools in ethnically and socio-economically diverse communities in Minnesota, USA. The response rate was 81.5%. Rates of UWCBs were compared across the spectrum of prevalence of trying to lose weight and friends' involvement with dieting, using ?2 analysis and multivariate logistic regression, controlling for demographic factors and clustering by school. Girls with higher body mass index (BMI) were more likely to engage in UWCBs than those of lower BMI. Multivariate models indicated that friends' dieting behavior was significantly associated with UWCBs for average weight girls (OR=1.57, CI=1.40-1.77) and moderately overweight girls (OR=1.47, CI=1.19-1.82). The school-wide prevalence of trying to lose weight was significantly, albeit modestly, related to UWCBs for average weight girls (15th-85th percentile; OR=1.17, CI=1.01-1.36), and marginally associated for modestly overweight girls (85th-95th percentile; OR=1.21, CI=.97-1.50), even after controlling for friends' dieting behaviors. The social influences examined here were not associated with UWCBs among underweight (<15th percentile) or overweight (>95th percentile) girls. Findings suggest that social norms, particularly from within one's peer group, but also at the larger school level may influence UWCBs, particularly for average weight girls. Implications for school-based interventions to reduce UWCBs are discussed.

Fergus, S, Zimmerman, M.A. (2005). "Adolescent Resilience: a Framework for Understanding Healthy Development in the Face of Risk." Annual Review of Public Health, 2005, 26:399-419. return to list

Abstract:
Adolescent resilience research differs from risk research by focusing on the assets and resources that enable some adolescents to overcome the negative effects of risk exposure. We discuss three models of resilience (the compensatory, protective, and challenge models) and describe how resilience differs from related concepts. We describe issues and limitations related to resilience and provide an overview of recent resilience research related to adolescent substance abuse, violent behavior, and sexual risk behavior. We then discuss implications that resilience research has for intervention and describe some resilience-based interventions.

Haines, M. "Habituation and Social Norms." The Report on Social Norms, 4(7):1,3,8.
(Note: A PDF copy of this article is available by clicking on the title.) return to list

Excerpt:
"Anyone experienced with applying social marketing concepts to correct misperceived social norms knows that delivering credible true norm messages consistently and frequently is a key to success. Is it possible to overdo the marketing, overdose our audience, turn them against us? The answer is "yes" and when we do that it is called habituation by professional advertisers. Habituation can reduce the effectiveness of a social norms campaign or even cause it to fail." The article describes the stages and causes of habituation, as well as solutions to it.

Lapinski, M.K., Rimal, R.N. (2005). "An Explication of Social Norms." Communication Theory, 15(2):127-147. return to list

Abstract:
This article identifies four factors for consideration in norms-based research to enhance predictive ability of theoretical models. First, it makes the distinction between perceived and collective norms and between descriptive and injunctive norms. Second, the article addresses the role of important moderators in the relationship between descriptive norms and behaviors, including outcome expectations, group identity, and ego involvement. Third, it discusses the role of both interpersonal and mass communication in normative influences. Lastly, it outlines behavioral attributes that determine susceptibility to normative influences, including behavioral ambiguity and the public or private nature of behavior.

Lederman. L. and Stewart, L. (2005). Changing The Culture Of College Drinking: A Socially Situated Health Communication Campaign. Hampton Press. return to list

Included in this book are chapters by Alan Berkowitz (reviewing the history of social norms Theory), Patricia Fabiano (describing the work done at WWU with a small group approach incorporating social norms) and by Linda Jeffrey and Pam Negro of Rowan University (summarizing their work with a state-wide social norms project). The book targets a new audience for social norms work: the discipline of communication, where many who study persuasion theory and health communication may now be introduced to the Socially Situated Experiential Learning approach used by Lederman and Stewart at Rutgers University: an approach that relies upon and acknowledges the role of social norms and misperceptions.

Lewis, T.F. and Thombs, D.L. (2005). "Perceived Risks and Normative Beliefs as Explanatory Models for College Student Alcohol Involvement: An Assessment of a Campus with Conventional Alcohol Control Policies and Enforcement Practices." NASPA Journal, 2005, 42(2):202-222. return to list

Abstract:
The aim of this study was to conduct a multivariate assessment of college student drinking motivations at a campus with conventional alcohol control policies and enforcement practices, including the establishment and dissemination of alcohol policies and the use of warnings to arouse fear of sanctions. Two explanatory models were compared: perceptions of risk and normative beliefs. An anonymous questionnaire was administered to 1,396 students at a large Midwestern university. Data analyses were conducted on the subsample of participants who had reported using alcohol within the past 12 months (n=1,322). Overall, the results from a canonical correlation analysis indicated that alcohol involvement was best explained by normative beliefs about drinking practices of one's closest friends. Perceptions of drinking risk were less important to the explanation of alcohol involvement, and some of these measures unexpectedly had positive associations with indicators of alcohol risk behavior. The findings call into question the conventional deterrence strategies used in many university communities (i.e., belief that students perceive there to be a low risk of receiving sanctions were those most likely to engage in alcohol-related misbehavior). Furthermore, the findings suggest that effective interventions will need to impact students' normative beliefs about the drinking practices of proximal peer groups.

Linnan, L., LaMontagne, A.D., Stoddard, A., Emmons, K.M., and Sorensen, G. (2005). "Norms and Their Relationship to Behavior in Worksite Settings: an Application of the Jackson Return Potential Model." American Journal of Health Behavior, 29(3):258-268. return to list

Objectives:
To measure health norms and assess their influence on behavior among 2541 employees in 16 manufacturing worksites using an adapted Jackson's Return Potential Model (RPM).
Methods:
Worksite-level norm intensity, crystallization, and normative power were calculated for several behaviors; linear regression analyses tested whether normative power was related to each health behavior.
Results:
Norms about safe work practices and smoking were most intense; norms about safe work practices were most crystallized. Safe work practices and smoking held the highest normative power; healthy eating held the least normative power.
Conclusions:
Comparing norm characteristics across health behaviors leads to important leverage points for intervening to influence norms and improve worker health.

Macauly, A.P., Griffin, K.W., Gronewold, E., Williams, C., Botvin, G.J. (2005). " Parenting Practices and Adolescent Drug-Related Knowledge, Attitudes, Norms and Behavior." Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 49(2):67-83. return to list

Abstract:
The current study explored the relationships between parenting practices and adolescent drug use. Suburban middle school students (N=2129) completed surveys that included measures of perceived parental monitoring, discipline and setting an anti-drug message as well as measures of drug-related knowledge, attitudes, and peer norms. Results indicated that effective parenting practices had a direct protective effect in terms of adolescent drug use and that the protective effect of parenting practices remained significant after including the effects of parenting on adolescent drug-related knowledge, attitudes, and perceived norms in a structural equation model. These findings suggest that effective parenting practices have a robust protective effect on youth drug use via multiple pathways that extend beyond parenting effects on the most proximal predictors of adolescent drug use.

Nesdale, D., Maass, A., Durkin, K., and Griffiths, J. (2005). "Group Norms, Threat, and Children's Racial Prejudice." Child Development, 76(3):652-663. return to list

To assess predictions from social identity development theory (SIDT; Nesdale, 2004) concerning children's ethnic/racial prejudice, 197 Anglo-Australian children ages 7 or 9 years participated in a minimal group study as a member of a team that had a norm of inclusion or exclusion. The team was threatened or not threatened by an out-group that was of the same or different race. Consistent with SIDT, prejudice was greater when the ingroup had a norm of exclusion and there was threat from the out-group. Norms and threat also interacted with participant age to influence ethnic attitudes, although prejudice was greatest when the in-group had an exclusion norm and there was out-group threat. The implications of the findings for SIDT are discussed.

Ott, C.H., Cashin, S., Altekruse, M. (2005). "Development and Validation of the College Tobacco Survey." Journal of American College Health, 53(5):231-238. return to list

Abstract:
The authors report on the development and assessment of an instrument to measure baseline campus cigarette use and outcomes from prevention programs, including those using a social norms approach combined with environmental policy change. They administered the 37-item College Tobacco Survey (CTS) to a convenience sample of 1,279 college students in freshmen-level classes at a large urban university. Factor analysis of 15 belief items revealed 3 factors: Peer Environment, Personal Effects, and Campus Policy Endorsement. The findings support the survey's reliability and validity. The authors discuss potential uses of the survey in terms of social norms and environmental prevention programs.

Ott, C. H., & Doyle, L. H. (2005). "An Evaluation of the Small Group Norms Challenging Model: Changing Substance Use Misperceptions in Five Urban High Schools." The High School Journal, 88:45-55. return to list

Abstract:
According to social norms theory, when high school students overestimate the use of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs (ATOD) by their peers, they tend to use more themselves. The purpose of this study was to determine whether these overestimations (misperceptions) could be corrected through a similar age peer-to-peer interactive social norms approach based on the Small Group Norms-Challenging Model. The sample included 414 adolescents in health classes in five urban high schools. Baseline data were retrieved from the school district's Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS). Perception change was measured with items adapted from the YRBS. Results indicate a significant decrease in misperceptions from pretest to posttest. Student responses to open-ended questions indicate increased awareness of ATOD issues, positive plans for behavioral change, and positive program evaluation. Implications for the use of the social norms approach is presented for high school teachers and administrators.

Perkins, H. W., Haines, M. P., and Rice, R. (2005). "Misperceiving the College Drinking Norm and Related Problems: A Nationwide Study of Exposure to Prevention Information, Perceived Norms and Student Alcohol Misuse." Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 66:470-478. return to list

Objective:
This study examined (1) the prevalence of misperceptions of college student drinking norms across campuses nationwide, (2) the importance of perceived norms in predicting high-risk drinking, (3) the association of exposure to alcohol education information with students' perceptions of campus drinking norms and (4) the differences in high-risk drinking rates between schools where exposure to alcohol information is associated with more accurately perceived norms and schools where exposure to information is unrelated to perceptions or is associated with greater misperceptions.
Method:
Multivariate analyses were used to analyze an aggregate database of the National College Health Assessment survey administered to 76,145 students from 130 colleges and universities nationwide from spring 2000 through spring 2003.
Results:
Regardless of the actual campus drinking norm, a consistently large percentage of students nationwide overestimated the quantity of alcohol consumed by their peers. Students' perception of their campus drinking norm was the strongest predictor of the amount of alcohol personally consumed in comparison with the influence of all demographic variables. Perception of the norm was also a much stronger predictor when compared with the actual campus norm. Reduced levels of high-risk drinking and negative consequences were found among students attending the relatively few schools where exposure to prevention information was associated with less exaggerated perceptions of the drinking norm compared with students attending other schools.
Conclusions:
Misperceived drinking norms are a pervasive problem. Schools that do not seek to reduce these misperceptions with their prevention information are neglecting a potentially powerful component of prevention.

Rice, R., and Hancock, L. (2005). "The Mall Intercept: A Social Norms Marketing Research Tool." The Report on Social Norms, 4(7):4-7.
(Note: A PDF copy of this article is available by clicking on the title.) return to list

Excerpt:
"The mall intercept is an indispensable tool for conducting timely and effective process or monitoring research. Because it is relatively economical and can be easily adapted to investigate both ongoing and emergent questions, the mall intercept can generate a wealth of both qualitative and quantitative data about various aspects of project implementation. In addition, a wide variety of individuals can be trained to conduct intercepts, thus providing an important educational opportunity for peer educators, students in public and community health, marketing students, etc. In short, social norms projects have abundant reasons to use the mall intercept. By doing so, they can effectively bolster the comprehension, reach, and recall of their normative messages."

Russell, C., Clapp, J., DeJong, W. (2005). "Done 4: Analysis of a Failed Social Norms Marketing Campaign." Health Communication, 17(1) 57-65. return to list

Abstract:
College students commonly believe their peers engage in higher levels of dangerous drinking than is actually the case. Social norms marketing campaigns attempt to correct these misperceptions, decrease the perceived normative pressure to drink, and thereby drive down high-risk alcohol consumption. In this case study, we critically examined "Done 4," an unsuccessful social norms marketing campaign conducted as part of a comprehensive prevention trial at a large urban university. As part of this analysis, undergraduate marketing students were shown the principal advertisement used in the campaign and asked to complete an advertising analysis questionnaire. The results of this case study suggest that the advertisement was poorly constructed, which decreased its effectiveness and led to confusion about the social norms message. We discuss implications of these findings for future prevention campaigns and new research.

Rutland, A., Cameron, L., Milne, A., and McGeorge, P. (2005). "Social Norms and Self-Presentation: Children's Implicit and Explicit Intergroup Attitudes." Child Development, 76(2):451-466. return to list

Two studies examined whether social norms and children's concern for self-presentation affect their intergroup attitudes. Study 1 examined racial intergroup attitudes and normative beliefs among children aged 6 to 16 years (n5155). Accountability (i.e., public self-focus) was experimentally manipulated, and intergroup attitudes were assessed using explicit and implicit measures. Study 2 (n5134) replicated Study 1, focusing on national intergroup attitudes. Both studies showed that children below 10 years old were externally motivated to inhibit their in-group bias under high public self-focus. Older children were internally motivated to suppress their bias as they showed implicit but not explicit bias. Study 1, in contrast to Study 2, showed that children with low norm internalization suppressed their out-group prejudice under high public self-focus.

Sanchez, D.T., Crocker, J., Boike, K.R. (2005). "Doing Gender in the Bedroom: Investing in Gender Norms and the Sexual Experience." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(10):1445-1455. return to list

People often believe that they must be consistent with gender norms to obtain others' approval. The authors believe people who invest in gender norms tend to base self-esteem on others' approval, which undermines their sexual autonomy and ultimately diminishes their sexual satisfaction in intimate relationships. A survey of 309 sexually active college students examined whether placing importance on conforming to gender norms undermines sexual relationships because of its link to basing self-worth on others' approval and decreased sexual autonomy. Using structural equation modeling, the authors found that valuing gender conformity (but not avoiding gender deviance) negatively affects sexual pleasure for both men and women through increased contingency on others' approval and restricted sexual autonomy. The model fit the data for both men and women.

Schneider,S., Towvim, L.G., DeJong, W. (2005). "The Social Norms Marketing Research Project: Results for Study 1." The Report on Social Norms, Volume 4(5). return to list

This study found "slight decreases or modest increases in alcohol consumption at the schools randomly assigned to conduct a social norms marketing campaign, compared to fairly substantial increases at the control group schools. In sum, the social norms marketing campaigns conducted by the experimental schools appear to have provided a protective effect against the increases in alcohol consumption shown by the control group."

Sorensen, S.B., Taylor, C.A. (2005). "Female Aggression Toward Male Intimate Partners: An Examination of Social Norms in a Community-Based Sample." Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29:78-96. return to list

Abstract:
We investigated the effect of assailant gender on injunctive social norms (i.e., beliefs about what ought to happen) regarding violence toward an intimate heterosexual partner. In a random-digit-dialed survey conducted in four languages, 3,769 community-residing adults were presented with five vignettes in which we experimentally manipulated characteristics using multivariate logistic regressions. Judgments about women's violence against male intimates (vs. men's violence against female intimates) were less harsh and took contextual factors more fully into account. The type of violence and the presence of a weapon played a central rol in respondent judments. Respondent demographic characteristics were largely unrelated to their judgments.

Taylor, C. A., and Sorensen, S.B. (2005). "Community-Based Norms about Intimate Partner Violence: Putting Attributions of Fault and Responsibility into Context." Sex Roles, 53(7/8):573-589. return to list

Abstract:
Fault and responsibility are key concepts in understanding how victims and assailants are, or are not, held accountable to society. We used fractional factorial vignette design with a community-residing sample of 3,679 adults to examine judgments about intimate partner violence (IPV). Although fault, or causal responsibility, was assigned most often to assailants (69%), respondents assigned solution responsibility most often to both persons (52%) or to the victim alone (31%): interpersonal communication for couples (38%) and self-protective actions for victims (i.e., engaging formal authorities [12%] and/or leaving the assailant [11%]) were the most frequent suggestions. Potential injury to the victim and gender/relationship-based norms had the greatest impact on judgments.

Walters, Scott T., Miller, Elizabeth, and Chiauzzi, Emil (2005). Wired for Wellness: e-Interventions for Addressing College Drinking. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 29, 2, 139-145. return to list

Objective:
The article reviews evidence for the efficacy of computer and Internet interventions and provides information on five commercially available alcohol education and intervention programs that target college drinkers.
Method:
During the summer of 2004, the authors identified six commercially available computer and Internet programs that specifically targeted alcohol consumption among college students. The authors then contacted a representative from each program, asking for access to their site and requesting information about scope, intent, and outcome studies related to the program. This information was then summarized and provided in table format. Programs were recontacted in the spring of 2005 to obtain updated information. Five programs provided information for the review: (1) Alcohol 101 Plus (http://www.alcohol101plus.com); (2) Alcohol Response-Ability (http://www.bacchusgamma.org (3) Electronic Check-Up to Go (e-CHUG; http://www.e-chug.com); (4) myStudentBody (http://www.mystudentbody.com and (5) Under the Influence (http://www.underinfluence.com). One program, AlcoholEdu (http://www.alcoholedu.com) declined to participate.
Results:
The five programs varied substantially in terms of theoretical orientation, content, length and presentation style. One program (Alcohol 101 Plus) used CD-ROM technology whereas the others were delivered via the Internet. Most programs used a mix of informational, skills-based, and attitudinal material. All programs included assessment questions and provided personalized drinking feedback or other information that was customized to each user. Most of the programs provided some empirical data, although only two (e-CHUG and myStudentBody) had been involved in a controlled outcome study that measured changes in drinking behavior (Chiauzzi et al., 2005 and Walters et al., 2005). The interventions were being used in a variety of different context including (1) freshman orientation classes, (2) disciplinary or sanctioned students, (3) high-risk groups (e.g., fraternities, sororities, athletic teams), and (4) more general prevention efforts. Two of the programs also reported that they are being formally integrated with individual or group counseling approaches.
Conclusions:
In evaluating the five programs, the authors identified several themes. First, most of the programs appeared to rely heavily on educational content, providing engaging and effective information about the physical, social, and behavioral effects of alcohol through interactive games or quizzes rather than static text. The authors believe that this hybrid approach may improve overall effectiveness but make it difficult to determine the active components of an intervention. Second, the programs integrated some motivational, attitudinal, and skills-based strategies and provided personalized drinking feedback. Through assessment and screening, students were able to determine their own need for more formal interventions. Third, like much of alcohol literature in general, there did not appear to be a clear relationship between effectiveness and length of intervention. Finally, the content of the e-interventions mirrored that available in printed resources but also provided users with interactivity, information on demand, and customized personalized information in a private, non-judgmental setting. Users were able to control their learning environment and move at their own pace.
Implications for the Field:
Despite limited outcome research, there appear to be a number of advantages to computer and Internet programs that focus on alcohol reduction. E-interventions tend to include motivational, attitudinal, and skills-training components, which have better empirical support than educational approaches (Larimer and Cronce, 2002; Walters and Bennett, 2000).They have the ability to provide personal, customized, cost-effective interventions to a large audience through a well-used and interactive medium. There is, however, a lack of quality research on this approach. Future research on the effectiveness of e-interventions should use randomized, controlled research designs and compare the intervention to face-to-face approaches to see which is most relevant or interesting to college students. Studies should also examine if the type of information, layout, presentation, and delivery, or length of the program make a difference.

Walters, S. T. and Neighbors, N. (2005). "Feedback Interventions for College Alcohol Misuse: What, Why, and for Whom?" Addictive Behaviors, 30:1168-1182. return to list

Abstract:
In response to the persistent problem of college drinking, universities have instituted a range of alcohol intervention programs for students. Motivational feedback is one intervention that has garnered support in the literature and been adopted on college campuses. This article reviews published outcome studies that have utilized feedback as a major component of an alcohol intervention for college students. Overall, 11 of 13 reviewed studies (77%) found a significant reduction in drinking as compared to a control or comparison group. While the studies varied widely in terms of population, follow-up period, and feedback content, it appears that feedback can be effective whether delivered by mail, the Internet, or via face-to-face motivational interview. Feedback seems to change normative perceptions of drinking and may be more effective among students who drink for social reasons. The addition of a group or individual counseling session does not appear to increase the short-term impact of the feedback.

Wenzel, M. (2005). "Motivation or Rationalisation? Causal Relations between Ethics, Norms and Tax Compliance." Journal of Economic Psychology,26:491-508. return to list

Abstract:
This study investigated whether tax ethics and social norms constitute true motivations for tax compliance, or whether they are mere rationalisations of self-interested behaviour. Cross-lagged panel analyses were applied to data from a two-wave survey with 1161 Australian citizens. First, results showed that tax ethics causally affected tax compliance and were affected by levels of compliance. Second, perceived social norms causally affected personally held tax ethics, but only for respondents who identified strongly with the respective group. At the same time, personal ethics were also projected onto the perceived normative beliefs of the social group. Third, perceived norms causally affected tax compliance, partly mediated by their effect on personal ethics. Conversely, tax compliance also affected the perception of norms. Overall, the study provides evidence for a complex role of individual ethics and social norms in tax-paying behaviour.

Werner, N.E., Nixon, C.L. (2005). "Normative Beliefs and Relational Aggression: An Investigation of the Cognitive Bases of Adolescent Aggressive Behavior." Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34(3),229-243. return to list

Abstract:
The relations between normative beliefs about different forms of aggression and corresponding aggressive behaviors were investigated in 2 studies of adolescents. In Study 1, we revised an instrument designed to assess normative beliefs about aggression to include beliefs about the acceptability of relational aggression, and we examined the psychometric properties of the instrument. In Studies 1 and 2, the unique associations of normative beliefs about relational and physical aggression with self-reported relational and physical aggression were examined. Findings across both studies revealed that beliefs-behavior associations were specific to aggression forms. In other words, beliefs about relational aggression were uniquely associated with engagement in relationally aggressive acts, whereas beliefs about physical aggression, but not relational aggression, contributed unique information about adolescents' level of physical aggression. No gender effects were found. Results are discussed with a social-cognitive framework, and implications are explored for future prevention and intervention efforts to reduce aggressive behaviors.

West, S.L., Graham, C.W. (2005). "A Survey of Substance Abuse Prevention Efforts at Virginia's Colleges and Universities." Journal of American College Health, 54(3):185-191. return to list

Abstract:
The extremes of college student substance use and the negative consequences students face as a result of such use are of great public health concern. Although a multitude of campus-based substance abuse prevention efforts have appeared in the literature, a clear picture of the programs and policies currently at use at college and universities is not readily available. This research was undertaken to detail both the efforts aimed at general student samples and those targeting at-risk (e.g., Greeks, student athletes) and historically underserved student groups at colleges and universities in the Commonwealth of Virginia. While a variety of efforts were being made, there was a reliance on program orientations with limited scientific support. Four-year institutions used a wider array of outlets for their prevention messages. Targeted programs for at-risk groups were common but were largely unavailable specifically for ethnic minority students and students with disabilities.



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