National Social Norms Institute

Articles by Year - 2004

Albarracin, D., Kumkale, G.T., & Johnson, B.T. (2004). Influences of social power and normative support on condom use decisions: A research synthesis. AIDS Care, 16 (6), 700-723. go to summary

Alexander, E.N. & Bowen, A. M. (2004). Excessive drinking in college: Behavioral outcome, not binge, as a basis for prevention. Addictive Behaviors, 29, 1199-1205. go to excerpt

Beirness, D.J., Foss, R.D., & Vogel-Sprott. M. (2004). Drinking on campus: Self-reports and breath tests. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 65, 600-604. go to summary

Berkowitz, A. D. (2004). The Social Norms Approach: Theory, Research, and Annotated Bibliography. go to summary

Brener N.D, Eaton D.K., Lowry R., & McManus T. (2004). The association between weight perception and BMI among high school students. Obesity Research, 12 (11), 1866-1874. go to summary

Dalgety, J., & Coll, R. K. (2004). The influence of normative beliefs on students' enrollment choices. Research in Science & Technological Education, 22 (1), 59-80. go to summary

Kneeshaw, K., Vaske, J.J., Bright, A.D., & Absher, J.D. (2004). Acceptability Norms toward Fire Management in Three National Forests. Environment and Behavior, 36 (4), 592-612. go to summary

Lewis, M.A., & Neighbors, C. (2004). Gender-specific misperceptions of college student drinking norms. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 18 (4), 334-339. go to summary

Lynch, J.F., Mowrey, R.J., Nesbitt, G.M., & O'Neill, D.F. (2004). Risky business: Misperceived norms of sexual behavior among college students. NASPA Journal, 42 (1), 21-35. go to summary

Valde, K.S., & Fitch, K.L (2004). Desire and sacrifice: Seeking compliance in designated driver talk. Western Journal of Communication, 68 (2), 121-150. go to summary

Albarracin, D., Kumkale, G.T., & Johnson, B.T. (2004). Influences of social power and normative support on condom use decisions: A research synthesis. AIDS Care, 16 (6), 700-723. return to list

Abstract:
A meta-analysis of 58 studies involving 30,270 participants examined how study population and methodological characteristics influence the associations among norms, control perceptions, attitudes, intentions and behavior in the area of condom use. Findings indicated that control perceptions generally correlated more strongly among members of societal groups that lack power, including female, younger individuals, ethic minorities and people with lower educational levels. Furthermore, norms generally had stronger influences among younger individuals and among people who have greater access to informational social support, including males, ethnic majorities and people with higher levels of education. These findings are discussed in the context of HIV prevention.

Alexander, E.N. & Bowen, A. M. (2004). Excessive drinking in college: Behavioral outcome, not binge, as a basis for prevention. Addictive Behaviors, 29, 1199-1205. return to list

Excerpt:
"Perhaps the definition of excessive use or binge drinking hinders prevention efforts. The term binge may encapsulate such a broad array of drinking behaviors and outcomes that students fail to identify specific behaviors to change.Emphasizing negative outcomes may have minimal utility because they are frequently delayed. Positive experiences are more immediate and may provide an avenue of prevention programming. Interventions that focus on increased awareness of positive outcomes may improve expectations for light drinking.Emphasizing that people experience more fun when they increase the time spent in a social situation rather than increase the amount of alcohol consumed, educators can provide alternative reasons for students as to why they experience positive outcomes, rather than focusing only on drinking behaviors."

Beirness, D.J., Foss, R.D., & Vogel-Sprott. M. (2004). Drinking on campus: Self-reports and breath tests. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 65, 600-604. return to list

Abstract (excerpt):
The present survey examines the degree to which [the] 2-week 5+/4+ drink criterion characterizes a student's pattern of alcohol use, and whether the 5+/4+ drink criterion for a drinking occasion is a valid indicator of high blood alcohol concentration (BAC). METHOD: Students (N=856, 70% male) were interviewed as the returned home between 10PM and 3AM. Students reported their drinking of the past 2 weeks and of the night they were interviewed, then provided breath samples to determine their BAC. RESULTS: Among the students in the sample classified as "heavy" drinkers on the basis of self-reports, 49% had zero BAC on the night they were interviewed. Those who reported consuming 5+/4+ drinks the evening of the interview had a mean BAC <0.05%. Very high BACs (i.e., at or above 0.15%) were rare (1.3%). CONCLUSIONS: Self-reports of consuming 5+/4+ drinks on at least one occasion during the previous 2 weeks did not reliably identify a pattern of heavy drinking. Moreover, reports of 5+/4+ drinks on an occasion were not necessarily associated with high BACs.

[Note: Extensive information about the use of data from another BAC study in an effective social norms campaign conducted at the University of North Carolina is available on the web site of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration: http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/research/ReduceCollege/toc.htm This publication by Robert Foss, L. Marchetti, and K. Holladay is entitled: "Development and Evaluation of a Comprehensive Program to Reduce Drinking and Impaired Driving Among College Students: Final Report."]

Berkowitz, A. D. (2004). The Social Norms Approach: Theory, Research, and Annotated Bibliography. return to list

Provides a brief overview of research in support of social norms theory, reviews successful social norms interventions at all three levels of prevention (universal, selective and indicated), summarizes different applications of the approach, and makes recommendations for future development of the field. Included is an annotated bibliography of important publications and articles on the social norms approach.
Available online at: http://www.alanberkowitz.com/articles/social_norms.pdf

Brener N.D, Eaton D.K., Lowry R., & McManus T. (2004). The association between weight perception and BMI among high school students. Obesity Research, 12 (11), 1866-1874. return to list

Abstract:
To assess the association between weight perception and BMI among a large, diverse sample of adolescents. This study used both measured and self-reported height and weight to calculate BMI. A convenience sample of students (n = 2032) in grades 9 through 12 completed a questionnaire assessing demographic characteristics, self-reported height and weight, and body weight perception. These students were then weighed and had their height measured using a standard protocol.
Results:
Using BMI calculated from measured height and weight, 1.5% of students were classified as underweight or at risk for underweight, 51.2% of students were normal weight, and 47.4% were overweight or at risk for overweight. Among this same sample of students, however, 34.8% perceived themselves as underweight, 42.9% perceived themselves as about the right weight, and 22.3% perceived themselves as overweight. Even when using BMI calculated from self-reported height and weight, >20% of students who were overweight or at risk for overweight perceived themselves as underweight.
Discussion:
Because perception of overweight is a key determinant of adolescent nutritional habits and weight management, many students who are overweight or at risk for overweight but who do not perceive themselves as such are unlikely to engage in weight control practices. Increasing awareness of medical definitions of overweight might improve accuracy of weight perceptions and lead to healthier eating and increased physical activity.

Christensen, P. N., Rothgerber, H., Wood, W., & Matz, D.C. (2004). Social norms and identity relevance: A motivational approach to normative behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30 (10), 1295-1309. return to list

Two studies demonstrated that greater identification with a group was associated with more positive emotions for members who conformed with versus violated the group's norms. These effects were found with injunctive norms, which specify what members should do or what they ideally would do, but emerged less consistently with descriptive norms, which specify what members typically do. Descriptive norms affected emotional responses when they acquired identity-relevance by differentiating an important ingroup from a rival outgroup. For these descriptive norms, much like injunctive norms, greater identification yielded more positive emotions following conformity than violation. The authors suggest that positive emotions and selfevaluations underlie conformity with the norms of self-defining.

Dalgety, J., & Coll, R. K. (2004). The influence of normative beliefs on students' enrollment choices. Research in Science & Technological Education, 22 (1), 59-80. return to list

Peers, family, mentors and the media may influence students' attitudes towards chemistry and their intention to enrol in tertiary chemistry course. In this paper we report on an investigation of the perceptions students hold about their associates' attitudes toward chemistry and chemists. Data were gathered from 37 tertiary chemistry students, for whom chemistry had differing roles in their degree. The data suggest that although many of the students' associates subscribe to stereotypical images of chemistry and chemists, students choices of emrolment are predominantly based on their own previous experiences.

Eaton, D.K., Lowry, R., Brener, N.D., Grunbaum, J., & Kann, L. (2004). Passive versus active parental permission in school-based research: Does the type of permission affect prevalence estimates of risk behaviors? Evaluation Review, 28 (6), 564-577. return to list

Abstract:
This study investigates whether the type of parental permission affects prevalence estimates for risk behaviors from the 2001 Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Participants were 13,195 students from 143 schools, of which 65% used passive permission and 35% active permission. Student participation rates were 86.7% in passive permission schools and 77.3% in active permission schools. For 24 of 26 behaviors tested, no significant differences were seen in the prevalence of risk behavior by type of parental permission. As long as high response rates are obtained, type of parental permission does not affect prevalence estimates for risk behaviors that are based on self-report.

Fabiano, P., Perkins, H.W., Berkowitz, A., Linkenbach, J. & Stark, C. (2004). Engaging men as social justice allies in ending violence against women: Evidence for a social norms approach. Journal of American College Health, 52 (3), 105-112. return to list

Data from this study suggest that men underestimate the importance that most men and women place on consent and the willingness of most men to intervene against sexual violence. In addition, men's personal adherence to only consensual activity and their willingness to act as women's allies are strongly influenced by their perceptions of other men's and women's norms. These findings support the proposition t hat accurate normative data, which counters he misperception of rape-supportive environments, can be a critical part of campus efforts to prevent sexual violence against women.

Griffin, K.W., Botvin, G.J., Nichols, T.R., & Scheier, L.M. (2004). Low perceived chances for success in life and binge drinking among inner-city minority youth. Journal of Adolescent Health 34, 501-507. return to list

Purpose:
To examine the relationship between low perceived chances for success in life and binge drinking in a sample of economically disadvantaged, predominantly minority, urban adolescents.
Methods:
A sample of predominantly black and Hispanic students (N=774) from 13 inner city schools completed confidential questionnaires in the 7th, 8th, and 9th grades. Eight items measured students' estimation of achieving certain adaptive life goals. Students who reported that they typically drink five or more drinks per drinking occasion were identified as binge drinkers.
Results:
Chi-square proportional analyses indicated that rates of binge drinking increased and perceived life chances decreased for both boys and girls from the 7th to the 9th grade. A cross-lagged path analytic model revealed that higher perceived life chances in the 7th grade predicted less binge drinking in the 8th grade, wheras binge drinking in the 8th grade predicted lower perceived life chances in the 9th grade, controlling for change over time in both variables.
Conclusions:
Low perceived chances of success in life appear to play a roll in the initiation and escalation of binge drinking during early adolescence, with reciprocal relationship between the two factors developing over time.

Kneeshaw, K., Vaske, J.J., Bright, A.D., & Absher, J.D. (2004). Acceptability Norms toward Fire Management in Three National Forests. Environment and Behavior, 36 (4), 592-612. return to list

Excerpt:
"Overall, this study has demonstrated how the normative approach can be used to identify forest users' acceptance of fire management actions across a variety of fire scenarios and three national forests. Extending this research to other stakeholder groups, national forests, and fire scenario factors would create amore holistic prediction of the acceptability of fire management actions. Such an expansion would increase managers'confidence in choosing the most acceptable management action and potentially help reduce conflict associated with fire management policies. Understanding normative beliefs about acceptable management actions, as well as the factors influencing these normative beliefs, facilitates more effective communication and education about fire management."

Larimer, M., Turner, A., Mallett, K., & Geisner, I. (2004). Predicting drinking behavior and alcohol-related problems among fraternity and sorority members: Examining the role of descriptive and injunctive norms. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 18 (3), 203-212. return to list

Abstract:
The authors examined the relation between Greek students' perceptions of alcohol consumption in their pledge classes (descriptive norms) and acceptability of drinking (injunctive norms) and the ability of these normative influences to predict drinking behavior, alcohol-related negative consequences; and symptoms of alcohol dependence concurrently and prospectively over I year. Participants were 279 men and 303 women recruited from incoming pledge classes of 12 fraternities and 6 sororities, who completed measures of descriptive and injunctive norms, alcohol use, and consequences. Results revealed that descriptive norms significantly predicted concurrent drinking. After controlling for baseline drinking, injunctive norms significantly predicted drinking 1 year later and predicted alcohol-related consequences and dependency symptoms at baseline and follow-up. The potential to incorporate injunctive norms into preventive interventions is discussed.

Lewis, M.A., & Neighbors, C. (2004). Gender-specific misperceptions of college student drinking norms. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 18 (4), 334-339. return to list

Abstract:
This study evaluated perceptions of same-sex and opposite-sex gender-specific versus gender-nonspecific drinking norms among college students (115 men, 111 women). This research is consistent with previous findings that college students overestimate the quantity and frequency of drinking among their gender-nonspecific peers and demonstrates that both men and women overestimate the quantity and frequency of the drinking of their same-sex peers. The findings suggest that perceived same-sex norms are more strongly associated with problematic drinking than are gender-nonspecific norms and that perceived same-sex drinking norms are stronger predictors of alcohol consumption for women than for men. Results suggest that interventions incorporating normative feedback should be framed differently for women than for men.

Lynch, J.F., Mowrey, R.J., Nesbitt, G.M., & O'Neill, D.F. (2004). Risky business: Misperceived norms of sexual behavior among college students. NASPA Journal, 42 (1), 21-35. return to list

Abstract:
Do students accurately perceive the sexual behavior of their peers? The results of this study indicate a dramatic difference between students' self-reported sexual behavior and their perceptions of peer sexual behavior. Specifically, students tend to overestimate the potentially risky sexual activity of their peers. The data also challenge popular myths regarding the sexual behavior of Greek and athlete populations. As with alcohol prevention efforts, the disparity between behavior and perception raises the question of whether social marketing strategies may be effective in lowering the incidence of unsafe sexual behaviors among college students.

Martens, M.P., Taylor, K.K., Damann, K.M., Page, L.C., Mowry, E.S., & Cimini, M.D. (2004). Protective behavioral strategies when drinking alcohol and their relationship to negative alcohol-related consequences in college students. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 18 (4), 390-393. return to list

Abstract:
Prior research has examined a number of individual characteristics (e.g., gender, family connectedness) that protect individuals from engaging in heavy drinking and experiencing negative alcohol-related consequences, but less is known about specific behavioral strategies that might also serve as protective factors. In this study, 556 undergraduate students completed the National College Health Assessment and answered questions regarding the use of specific protective behavioral strategies (PBS), alcohol consumption, and alcohol-related consequences. Results indicated that less frequent use of PBS was related to a greater likelihood of experiencing negative alcohol-related consequences, even after accounting for the effects of gender and alcohol consumption. These results suggest that PBS may be an important component of both prevention and treatment programs for college students.

Mattern, J. & Neighbors, C. (2004). Social norms campaigns: Examining the relationship between changes in perceived norms and changes in drink levels. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 65, 489-493. return to list

This study examines changes in drinking as a function of changes in perceived drinking norms following a social norms marketing campaign to correct normative misperceptions of college student drinking among residence hall students. Results revealed reduced perceptions of typical student drinking frequency and quantity. Among non-abstainers, drinking quantity went down from pre to post intervention. Further examination revealed that reductions in drinking were only evident among students whose perceived norms were reduced.

Neighbors, C., Larimer, M.E., & Lewis, M.A. (2004). Targeting misperceptions of descriptive drinking norms: Efficacy of a computer-delivered personalized normative feedback intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72 (3), 434-447. return to list

Abstract:
The authors evaluated the efficacy of a computer-delivered personalized normative feedback intervention in reducing alcohol consumption among heavy-drinking college students. Participants included 252 students who were randomly assigned to an intervention or control group following a baseline assessment.
Immediately after completing measures of reasons for drinking, perceived norms, and drinking behavior, participants in the intervention condition were provided with computerized information detailing their own drinking behavior, their perceptions of typical student drinking, and actual typical student drinking. Results indicated that normative feedback was effective in changing perceived norms and alcohol consumption at 3- and 6-month follow-up assessments. In addition, the intervention was somewhat more effective at 3-month follow-up among participants who drank more for social reasons.

Randolph, W., & Viswanath, K. (2004). Lessons learned from public health mass media campaigns: Marketing health in a crowded media world. Annual Review of Public Health, 25, 419-37. return to list

Abstract:
Every year, new public health mass media campaigns are launched attempting to change health behavior and improve health outcomes. These campaigns enter a crowded media environment filled with messages from competing sources. Public health practitioners have to capture not only the attention of the public amid such competition, but also motivate them to change health behaviors that are often entrenched or to initiate habits that may be new or difficult. In what ways are public health mass media campaigns now attempting to succeed in a world crowded with media messages from a myriad of sources? What are the conditions that are necessary for a media campaign to successfully alter health behaviors and alter outcomes in the long term? To what extent can the successes and failures of previous campaigns be useful in teaching important lessons to those planning campaigns in the future? In this chapter we attempt to answer these questions, drawing from recent literature on public health mass media campaigns.

Scholly, K., Katz, A.R., Gascoigne, J., & Holck, P.S. (2004). Using social norms theory to explain perceptions and sexual health behaviors of undergraduate college students: An exploratory study. Journal of American College Health, 53 (4), 159-166. return to list

Abstract:
The authors and associates conducted a social norms-based intervention targeting high-risk sexual behaviors among undergraduate students at 4 college campuses. Social norms theory predicts that widely held misperceptions may encourage risky behavior in a misguided attempt to conform to perceived norms and that information correcting these misperceptions will lead to a decrease in such behaviors. Students overestimated their peers' levels of sexual activity, number of partners, incidence of sexually transmitted infections, and rates of unintended pregnancies, but underestimated rates of condom use. Rates of HIV test taking, however, were accurately estimated. Although some components of sexual risk behaviors lend themselves well to social norms-based interventions, others, specifically inconsistent condom use and avoiding HIV tests, do not. Although no changes in reported beliefs or practices were apparent at the end of the 9-month intervention period, longer and modified interventions may be needed to make a fair assessment of the efficacy of this approach.

Thombs, D. L., Dotterer, S., Olds, R. S., Sharp, K.E., & Raub, C.G. (2004). A close look at why one social norms campaign did not reduce student drinking. Journal of American College Health, 53 (2), 61-68. return to list

Abstract (excerpt):
The authors examined 3 possible explanations for the failure of a social norms campaign at a large public university.At follow-up, 66.5% of the students were aware of the campaign, yet the survey revealed no reduction in perceived drinking norms or alcohol use in this group. An analysis of the postcampaign sample revealed that (1) a majority of the students did not find the statistics in the campaign messages credible, (2) higher levels of alcohol use predicted lower levels of perceived campaign credibility, and (3) only 38.5% of the students understood the campaign's intended purpose.

Turner, J.C., Bauerle, J. & Shu, J. (2004). Estimated blood alcohol concentration correlation with self-reported negative consequences among college students using alcohol. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 65 (6), 741-749. return to list

Abstract:
The estimated blood alcohol concentration (eBAC) has the potential for being a useful index of alcohol induced intoxication and impairment. This study investigates the association of the eBAC with negative consequences associated with alcohol use. Self-reported negative consequences were assessed using a stratified random sampling of 4708 undergraduate students at a public university with a total enrollment of 12,550. Survey questions permitted the calculation. Levels of eBAC were correlated with demographic characteristics and self-reported negative consequences. The effectiveness of the eBAC in predicting negative consequences was compared to drinks per week and consuming at or above the heavy episodic drinking level by calculating receiver operator characteristic values (ROC) and incremental validity by performing multiple logistic regressions. The results of reporting a higher level of eBAC were significantly elevated for males, underage classmen, and members of Greek organizations. The odds of reporting a negative consequence were highly associated with each incremental increase in the eBAC level. The performance of the eBAC was not significantly different than drinks per week and the heavy episodic drinking index in correlating with negative consequences.
Conclusion:
As an index of alcohol consumption, the level of "typical eBAC is correlated with seventeen self-reported social and health consequences. There are potential advantages of using the eBAC index in assessing alcohol use among college drinkers.

Valde, K.S., & Fitch, K.L (2004). Desire and sacrifice: Seeking compliance in designated driver talk. Western Journal of Communication, 68 (2), 121-150. return to list

Abstract:
Media Campaigns introduced the term designated driver to United States discourse in an effort to persuade people not to drink and drive. This study explores implementation of the media campaign's objective in social interactions. We describe cultural premises related to drinking and driving, facework issues in designated driver talk, and relational resources relevant to designating a driver. Although people routinely attempt to designate a driver, interpretations of the term often diverge from the goal of eliminating drunk driving. The findings emphasize that designated driver talk is constructed through interaction sequences, and that problematic issues around face threats and cultural assumptions about drinking and driving should be addressed.



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